Birth, family life and education
-By Timothy Lyons
The school of thought that I currently follow is that of behaviorism which was heavily influenced by B.F. Skinner. I have utilized many different types of modalities in my current work. This school was one that has interested me more so than others. The reason that I have come to the use and study of behaviorism is through my own path to introspection. I had once found in the back of a magazine a reference to something called ACT. I did not know what this was and I wanted to know more. I began to read books, journals and articles on the subject. I traced its history and origins. I found the ideas that I encountered intriguing. I found its application to my life as something that would come to change the very person that I was into who I am today (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012).
The psychologist that is most well known in the history of the field of behaviorism is B.F. Skinner. Burrhus Frederic Skinner was born on March 20, 1904. He grew up in Susquehana, Pennsylvania. He was raised by his mother and father. His Father was a lawyer. It appears that B.F. Skinner was a good student and that he loved learning. He tinkered with and built all manner of gadgets (Biography.com, n.d.).
His early college career lead him to receiving his BA in English from Hamilton College. He was not a very outgoing college attendee. He was serious about his studies and did not enjoy going to parties or attending football games. He was a writer for the school paper. He was also an affirmed atheist at the college that was known for requirement that students attend chapel each day. His attempts at writing included writing poetry and short stories. When he finally graduated he attempted to build a study in his parent’s attic so that he could continue his writing career but he soon found that it did not suit his interests and he set out to live and write for newspapers in New York City (Boeree, 2006).
In an autobiographical chapter from (E.G. Boring & Lindzey, 1967), B.F. Skinner described his childhood as warm and stable. He admitted to living with his parents until he went to college. He wrote briefly about his brother who died of a cerebral aneurysm when he was just 16. The interesting part of this is that B.F. Skinner wrote that he did not feel for his brother’s death when it occurred. He said that he felt guilty for not feeling anything at the time. I wonder if there were any doubt from this example that B.F. Skinner would be more apt to enter the field of psychology and move into behaviorism while eschewing the cognitive aspect that dealt with thoughts and emotions.
It would appear from his later work that B.F. Skinners approach to what he termed verbal behavior, thinking processes, would be complicated and would deal with thoughts in a very objective and fact like manner. In fact it would be so complicated that in order to attempt to understand those processes one must know that they are mediated not only by contingencies but also by external social stimuli. This would be the one area where the likelihood of understanding the behavior would be difficult because an analysis of external stimuli such as other persons and their contingent reinforcement would be necessary to comprehend the behavior (Chomsky, 1959; B.F. Skinner, 1957; Vargas, 2007).
The writing career that he envisioned was not to be in the way that B.F. Skinner had started out. He was writing for newspapers and had become dissatisfied with this. He decided to return to university to get a higher degree. He began his return to college in 1928. His idea was to become the person who could change the world. He had thought to do this through his writing. He enrolled in the program within the Department of Philosophy and Psychology. While attending he had come upon the ideas of John Watson through his reading avarice. The ideas that were put forth on behaviorism brought B.F. Skinner to the conclusion that if he wanted to change the world, the most effective way to do it was through psychology. His schedule was one that did not lend itself to any social interactions. His work hours through school were intense. He would wake early, attend classes all day and then study into the night. He even commented that his graduate school had tested him in a way that no other part of his life had (Briker, 2014).
As a testament to his rigorous schedule, B.F. Skinner obtained his Masters in psychology by 1930 and his Doctorate in 1931 (Boeree, 2006). In that same year he moved to Minneapolis to teach at the University of Minnesota. He met and Married his wife Yvonne Blue and they had two children together. Another interesting fact is that one of those children would be the first child to be raised in one of his experimental gadgets that he called an air crib.
You can read about his accomplishments and major theory
Accomplishments and major theory
B.F. Skinners major accomplishments reside in his writing and theories. He was a well decorated psychologist. He received awards and honors that totaled more than 35. His most prestigious award was the American Psychological Association’s (APA) Lifetime Achievement award that he received in 1990. It was the crowning moment for one of the most popular and well known psychologists, Sigmund Freud notwithstanding. His prominence was so great that he was awarded honorary degrees. In all there were 21 honorary degrees from major universities around the country (Boeree, 2006).
Through his autobiography and other writings about B.F. Skinner we can see that his man attained great notoriety and levels of success. While still at Harvard, B.F. Skinner came upon the idea to measure behavior objectively and scientifically. He began to use his earlier skills at tinkering with gadgets to invent a type of box in which he could put animals and observe them. He began by studying rats. He was able to observe them interacting with their environment. He watched as they responded to rewards dispensed by a lever in the box. He later used the box to observe pigeons and the way in which they interacted with the box (Biography.com, n.d.). At this early point in his career B.F. Skinner had already hit upon the idea that it was necessary for some form of reinforcement to occur so that behavior change would also occur.
This idea of B.F. Skinner was termed operant conditioning. Although he had been influenced by Watson’s behaviorism, B.F. Skinner believed that we had a mind which is the type of work that he began to apply his studies later in life. He preferred to study external behavior rather than internal events. He focused on the idea that the earlier type of behaviorism was too simple to explain complex behavior. The idea that came from this was that the best manner by which to understand human behavior was through looking at how an action is caused through the consequences that result. This is how he came about operant conditioning. Operant conditioning was roughly that actions that are taken have an effect on the surrounding environment. In 1938 only 7 years after he received his Doctorate B.F. Skinner came up with the term operant conditioning. This means that behavior is changed through the use of reinforcements that are applied after the behavior has been performed. He had originally set out to understand how certain behaviors were more or less likely to occur. This is the idea of reinforcement. A behavior that is reinforced will continue or strengthen. A behavior that is not reinforced will have a tendency to extinguish or become weaker (McLeod, 2015).
B.F. Skinner was able to identify three types of reinforcement through this work. There were neutral operants which were those consequences from the environment that did not increase of decrease the behavior, reinforcers that would increase the likelihood of the behavior and punishers that would in most cases, decrease the behavior (McLeod, 2015). B.F. Skinner published the discoveries of his work in a 1938 book titled The Behavior of Organisms. There would be comparisons of his work to earlier behaviorists who had identified involuntary responses to stimuli but the difference in his work was that B.F. Skinner had identified learned responses to environmental changes (Biography.com, n.d.; Boeree, 2006).
His system of behavioral change involved the use of operants and he coined it operant conditioning. The basic theory holds that a person operates in a world that is filled with reinforcing stimuli. While going about our daily lives when we encounter these stimuli or consequences from those behaviors, the behavior is either strengthened (increased) or weakened (decreased) (Boeree, 2006).
In his work B.F. Skinner discusses how he came upon the idea of reinforcement schedules. His discovery of schedules of reinforcement was an accident that occurred when he decided to not give some food pellets to the rats that he was studying. These schedules of reinforcement had implications for the ability of the person dispensing the rewards to control and change behavior.
He came upon the idea of continuous reinforcement, when each time a behavior is enacted there is a reward received which ensures that the behavior is continuous. Next is a fixed ratio schedule in which the reward is received the reward is received after a specific number of attempts of the behavior. This ensures that the behavior will continue and that it is repeated the number of times that it must occur for the reward to be presented. Another type of schedule is the fixed interval schedule that occurs with time. The reward is dispensed at specific times and no matter how many times the behavior occurs it will only happen at the set time period. This ensures that behavior will continue but that the behavior is then paced and does not occur as frequently as if the reward was received at each behavior action. It tends to create an environment in which the behavior will occur more slowly once the reward is received and more quickly at the time that the reward is about to be received. The last schedule is the variable schedule. This presents a reward at different occurrences of the behavior. At first perhaps the behavior is rewarded after three times, then perhaps after ten times. The reward is still given but the amount of times that behavior must occur to receive the reward changes so that the behavior will be repeated over and over in order to receive the reward which can occur at any time after any number of actions. This is a powerful method by which behavior can be controlled because the behavior will be repeated often because there is no way to know at which point the behavior will receive a reward, much like gambling on slot machines when one does not know when they will receive more coins for their pull of the lever (Boeree, 2006).
With reinforcement, B.F. Skinner believed that he could shape behavior. It was known as shaping. He would give the animals in his study a reward when the behavior that he desired to be produced was approximated even if vaguely. The animal would then have to make another similar behavior that more closely copied the desired behavior so that in time the reinforcement would then shape the animal to move close and closet the behavior. In this idea it was the ability to teach the animal to move toward the end result that would define its learning of the desired outcome (Boeree, 2006).
There were many criticisms of his theories. It would seem that behaviorists began to treat all behaviors in humans as if there were not thought involved. He responded by explaining his work in better terms. In (E.G. Boring & Lindzey, 1967) B.F. Skinner explains that thoughts are akin to behaviors. The idea is that in accounts of cognitive theory the idea of thoughts were mislabeled. The thoughts as standing alone did not account for the interaction with the consequences. The labeling of thoughts then had to be inferred from behaviors that had occurred. As the person begins to interact with the environment, the environment takes on the role of thoughts purpose and plans. In so much of his work he did not want to use the term language because of its arbitrary meaning. It is perhaps because of influence from earlier works that he concluded that the various “language” could take on any number of meanings. It was his defense of why he did not want to study the simplistic behaviors of say something like the movement of a frogs leg that he was able to begin what appears to be a search for the use of verbal behavior and its understanding that moves into the type of behavior therapies that are used today. He mentioned that it is only through verbal behavior that non mechanical responses, or higher level behaviors can be learned (De Lourdes & Passos, 2012).
In (Mulligan, 2016) this point is illustrated in that B.F. Skinner began to show how strong reinforcement could be. He used schedule of reinforcement, and brought ideas such as generalization and discrimination into the framework of behaviorism. Most importantly he expanded the principles of his operant conditioning so that verbal behavior must be considered. . I believe this is the important fact because it is the point of most of the controversy within the behavioral schools of thought.
Read Bout the Application of B.F. Skinner’s work
Application of B.F. Skinner’s work
So how does this idea of language or verbal behavior fit into the type of work that is performed today? How is it used in my work and what evidence do I have that supports my choice? There are so many studies and so much evidence along the line of behavior techniques that has been produced using scientific methods. The ideas that B.F. Skinner espoused as they applied to the understanding of verbal behavior were not well fleshed out. However, they did provide the impetus for behaviorists to consider the idea of language, or verbal behavior in the actions of controlling behavior.
In the article (Kangas & Maguire, 2016) it is noted that the work of B.F. Skinner began to include the importance of studying internal private events. There is quite a bit of difficulty in the study of these events as they are examined through the lens of what is known as radical behaviorism. It is also noted that it is critical to expand this type of study in order to truly understand how complicated behavior actions or learned. The main idea in this article directly ties into the type of work that I do. I work in addiction and use evidenced based practices to assist persons with substance use disorders to overcome and manage that disorder. The idea that behaviors can be understood through the study of private events especially through the research in drug discrimination. This has been an effective tool because there is now the ability to measure potency, receptor selectivity, abuse potential and can be used to understand and characterize a large range of subjective effects. It appears that private internal events can be categorized as their own set of behavioral phenomena even though there is great difficulty in studying these events.
There have been thousands of tests that use drug discrimination to study internal verbal events. This is performed by the administration of the drugs so that the behavior is changed over periods where the studied entity is then cued to respond. The drugs can then be changed and the respondent can then discuss the changes of differences that occur when another dug is administered. Ideas such as how closely does this drug resemble the other can then be acquired so that internal events are then part of the study (Kangas & Maguire, 2016).
B.F. Skinner even alluded to the necessary use of verbal events and bridging the gap between behaviorism and the process of thinking in (B.F. Skinner, 2014). The idea that all of human nature could be reviewed including private events would bring science to have the ability to assist in so many areas. Internal private events must be included in this work. It is this are of behaviorism that is something that is most akin to the work that I prefer to do.
The use of modern techniques that are behavioral in nature and sometimes known as third wave behavioral techniques can be used to treat many of the problems that exist today. The idea that language is at the core of many of the problems and can be used in clinical settings comes from theories such as relational framing which stands to understand the extremely complex use of language as it applies to the influence of behavior (Torneke, 2010). This theory helps to inform types of clinical applications that have been devised to assist in behavior change. The application of these types of therapies such as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) have been proven to be useful in many settings (Hayes, Strosahl, & Wilson, 2012).
One notable application of ACT is in the treatment of substance use disorders. In (Harvey, Henricksen, Bimler, & Dickson, 2017) the study was aimed at the cessation of use of alcohol which was used as a tool to manage emotion dysregulation. The implication of its use cn bring about any number of pathological problems that are associated with the use. The efficacy of the use of Act therapy is designed to allow the change of context in internal private events. The use of this intervention was to bring about reduction in use of the substance and greater control of anxiety and stress. The studies outcomes point to improvements in functioning after learning techniques from the theory and hold promise that these techniques can improve overall psychosocial functioning.
In (Hallis, Cameli, Dionne, & Knäuper, 2016) the use of the behavioral therapy known as ACT is shown to have been recognized by the APA having modest research support in many areas of treatment. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) has given merit to the therapy as one that is empirically supported. A recent analytical study of the therapy has shown it to be effective in treatment of anxiety disorders, substance abuse, depression and somatic health problems.
B.F. Skinner believed that verbal events were necessary in understanding how behaviors are learned. He also brought about thinking along the lines that thoughts are behaviors that are also influenced just as other behaviors are. This was further expanded when relational frame theory (RFT) came about to understand how the actual language in the mind was in fact behavioral and that it could be influenced. RFT is fundamentally the same as the concept as B.F. Skinner with the expanded area of how the learned behavior comes about. The concept of ACT, derived from RFT and used clinically, then begins to take on this challenge and recognize that it is not necessary to change the thoughts themselves, but to change the context from which the thoughts are used and understood. It is this very concept that allow the use of a behavioral theory to change the behavioral interaction between a person and their thoughts. This is accomplished through a change of context (Gross & Fox, 2009; Hallis, Cameli, Dionne, & Knäuper, 2016).
I use this idea of a change of context with one’s own internal events in my own work. The idea is known as psychological flexibility. The modalities that I prefer are primarily based in behaviorism. I am eclectic in that I also use some cognitive behavioral techniques. The ability to assist persons with substance use disorders is an important one. In many cases there are treatment failures. ACT has been shown to be effective for persons with multiple treatment failures (Clarke, Kingston, James, Bolderston, & Remingtonb, 2014). In some cases this can be seen as a treatment resistant client. By introducing other ways in which one can interact with internal private events there are some successes where other modalities have failed. This application is used in many different types of disorders substance use disorder being one of those that is well worth attacking in this manner.
These theories that have grown over the years through countless dissection of B.F. Skinner’s work have been directly influenced by his ideas. Without this earlier work it is quite possible that none of these clinical applications would have come about. The world of psychology is a better place with the scientific knowledge that came from these early ideas. The work that I do is better as a result. The Clients that can learn this type of tool to assist them are better off. Although the direct application of these earlier techniques has not been easy, their newer and enhanced iterations have come about as a formidable process to address the needs of many sufferers.
References for B.F. Skinner
Biography.com. (n.d.). B.F. B.F. Skinner. Retrieved April 16, 2017, from http://www.biography.com/people/bf-B.F. Skinner-9485671
Boeree, C. G. (2006). B.F. Skinner. Retrieved April 16, 2017, from http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/B.F. Skinner.html
Briker, G. (2014, October). B.F. Skinner at Harvard. The Harvard Crimson. Retrieved from http://www.thecrimson.com/article/2014/10/16/bf-B.F. Skinner-at-harvard/
Carroll, K. M., & Onken, L. S. (2005). Behavioral Therapies for Drug Abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, , . doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1452 American Journal of psychiatry
Chomsky, N. (1959). A Review of B. F. B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior. Language, 35(1), 26-58.
Clarke, S., Kingston, J., James, K., Bolderston, H., & Remingtonb, B. (2014). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy group for treatment-resistant participants: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science, 3(3), 179-188.
De Lourdes, R., & Passos, M. (2012). B. F. B.F. Skinner: the Writer and His Definition of Verbal Behavior. The Behavior Analyst, 35(1), 115-126.
Boring, E. G., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.). (1967). A History of Psychology in Autobiography (Vol. 5) (1 ed.). New York, NY: Irvington Publishers Inc.
Gross, A. C., & Fox, E. J. (2009). Relational Frame Theory: An Overview of the Controversy. The Analysis of Verbal Behavior, 25(1), 87-98.
Hallis, L., Cameli, L., Dionne, F., & Knäuper, B. (2016). Combining Cognitive Therapy with Acceptance and Commitment Therapy for depression: A manualized group therapy. Journal of Psychotherapy Integration, 26(2), 186-201. doi:doi:10.1037/int0000028
Harvey, S. T., Henricksen, A., Bimler, D., & Dickson, D. (2017). Addressing Anger, Stress, and Alcohol-Related Difficulties in the Military: An ACT Intervention. Military Psychology, , . doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/mil0000173
Hayes, S. C., Strosahl, K. D., & Wilson, K. G. (2012). Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Guilford Press.
Kangas, B. D., & Maguire, D. R. (2016). Drug discrimination and the analysis of private events. Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice, 16(4), 159-168. doi:doi:10.1037/bar0000032
McLeod, S. (2015). B.F. B.F. Skinner – Operant Conditioning. Retrieved April 17, 2017, from https://www.simplypsychology.org/operant-conditioning.html
Mulligan, B. (2016). BFB.F. Skinner. Retrieved April 18, 2017, from http://bethanymulligan.wixsite.com/bfB.F. Skinner/awards-and-positions
Skinner, B. F. (1957). Verbal behavior. New York, NY: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
Skinner, B. F. (2014). Science and human behavior. : The BF B.F. Skinner Foundation.
Torneke, N. (2010). Learning RFT (1 ed.). Oakland, CA: New Harbinger.
Vargas, E. A. (2007). B. F. B.F. Skinner’s Verbal Behavior: An introduction. Brazilian Journal of Behavior and Cognitive Therapy, 9(2), 1-20.